The Violence Of Gay Teenagers - 884 Words

Jody Dobrowski aged 24, was brutally murdered in South London in 2005 by two men who believed him to be homosexual. After such a severe, barbaric, inhumane act of homophobic violence, his own mother could not identify him, and his fingerprints had to be used. The judge described this as ‘homophobic thuggery’. Ian Baynham aged 62.Viciously assaulted by a young girl and boy; he punched him, whilst she repeatedly stamped and kicked him screaming ‘faggot’. His injuries were later fatal and he tragically died in hospital 18 days later. Christopher Schliach, Henry Bright, Jaap Bornkamp, Geoffrey Windsor, Daniel Jenkinson and a shocking many more, are all clear examples of hate crimes being metered out on gay men. Homophobia does kill, and isn’t reducing in frequency. Society kills homosexuals in ways other than murder. Due to the societal pressures, suicide rates amongst LGB individuals are skyrocketed compared to heterosexuals. Gay youths are 4 times more likely to attempt suicide. Gay teens are 3 times more likely. Gay men are 6 times more likely. 30% of the total suicides globally are made up by LGB individuals. Treating homosexuals as abhorrent and inferior, and societal persecution is exactly what causes these shocking statistics. My first experience of homophobia was at the age of 10, when I was labeled ‘gay’ (derogatorily), for choosing to play ‘tag’ with girls, rather than football with boys. In my innocence, I did not understand why this was a bad thing, as I only knewShow MoreRelated The Growing Problem of Teenage Violence in Schools Today Essay1195 Words   |  5 PagesProblem of Teenage Violence in Schools Today There is a growing problem with teenage violence today in school. The problem is teenagers are getting more and more violent. Many of them resort to violence as a way to deal with anger and stress. Most of teenage violence starts with the so called thugs who think they rule the school. Not just the thugs but anybody in general who thinks they can beat up on people and act all tough and push everyone around. Another source of this violence is the outcastsRead MoreMedia Is The Most Accessible Form Of Information1643 Words   |  7 Pagesmedia is widely acknowledged as the most accessible form of information in the world. Especially, adolescents are one of the experienced Internet users. Besides, they could have access to most contents easily. According to one study, American teenagers took their times a lot to using media (SNS, Internet, games and television). The average hours per a week are more than 38hours. One of the contents what they spend their time is YouTube. It is a large video sharing service and more than 4 billionRead MoreIs It A Victim Of Persecution?1553 Words   |  7 Pagesthem to find out that Nassr was gay. Nassr had two children whom the militia captured. The Mahdi militia tortured them in order to get information on Nassr. Finally they killed Nassr children. Now Nassr is living in Siria by himself and alone because of the intolerance his country had for gay people. Intolerance impacts multiple sectors of society with far-reaching effects on the gay community. Due to the amount of intolerance in society these days, the gay community is facing persecutionRead MoreIs It A Victim Of Persecution?1554 Words   |  7 Pagesthem to find out that Nassr was gay. Nassr had two children whom the militia captured. The Mahdi militia tortured them in order to get information on Nassr. Finally they killed Nassr children. Now Nassr is living in Siria by himself and alone because of the intolerance his country had for gay people. Intolerance impacts multiple sectors of society with far-reaching effects on the gay community. Due to the amount of intolerance in society these days, the gay community is facing persecutionRead MoreTeenage Suicide On The Rise Essay1521 Words   |  7 Pagesyoung and identify as lesbian, gay, bi or transgender. In Los Angeles County, researchers estimate that 70.6% of teens have seen bullying occur in their schools, and 30% admit to doing it themselves (Juvonen, 2012). Whereas, in Orange county between the years 2011-2013, there were 6.4 suicides for every 100,000 students due to some type of bullying (Childtrends.org, 2015). Regretfully, suicide is the leading cause of death among gay and lesbian youth, and 30% of gay youth attempt suicide near theRead MoreArgumentative Essay On Gay Marriage866 Words   |  4 Pagespositive qualities associated with a multi-parent home. Everyone should have a choice to decide on whom they would like to share their life with. Gay marriage should be legal and a non-punishable offense because it can prevent teenage suicides, more children will be adopted, and people will not feel like second-class citizens. If humanity were to accept gay marriage, it would lower and prevent some teen suicides. Most teens are deciding and revealing their true colors in middle and high school. â€Å"TheRead MoreStress And The Lgbt Teenager1738 Words   |  7 PagesStress and the LGBT Teenager Stressful teens are everywhere, existing in every middle and high school, hoping to get through the day. The amount of homework, after-school activities and social scene can put a lot of demands on a teen, especially a teenage girl. But, if you are a lesbian teenage adolescent, everything gets even more difficult and can lead to problems including stress, anxiety, depression and even suicide. The teen years represent a time when children begin to discover who they areRead MoreThe Reasons behind Homosexual Discrimination1214 Words   |  5 Pageswhat you feel, because those who mind dont matter and those who matter dont mind. Essentially, this advice is applicable to any given individual, yet it seems that it is most suitable for homosexuals, and therefore why it lies within the heart of gay rights. It is inevitable, that as a minority group, homosexuals will find that they will encounter more people who â€Å"mind† than heterosexuals. This particular discrimination has been o ccurring for decades all across the globe; however it became prominentRead MoreLgbt Youth Discrimination Is A Form Of Aggressive Behavior1396 Words   |  6 PagesLesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals, along with many other sexual minority young people, usually experience more bullying, violence, harassment, and degradation at school, than their heterosexual peers. Much of the information I have found was shocking due to the fact that I was not previously aware of the extent to which the struggles LGBT Youth face, regularly. Chosen by the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN), the Harris Interactive Survey â€Å"of more than 3,400 gay andRead MoreRisk Factors of Teenage Suicide1217 Words   |  5 PagesThousands of teenagers commit suicide each year. Many experts believe that teenage suicide is often due to unpredictable circumstances and can be contributed to hormonal impulses. However, recent case findings and statistics prove that this is not nec essarily true. Although some teenage suicides may be the result of youthful and impulsive actions, certain risk factors, signs, and symptoms can contribute to self-inflicted death in adolescents. For instance, the gender of a teenager plays a role

The Effect Of Ethics On Nike - 2167 Words

The effects of ethics on Nike By Lorenzo Thompson 1508128 Marking Tutor: Graham Herstell Contents 1. Introduction 2. Morals, Ethics and Nike 3. Ethical theories in the ethics of sport 3.1. Three Frameworks 3.2. The Consequentialist Framework 3.3. The Duty Framework 3.4. The Virtue Framework 3.5. Putting the Frameworks together 4. Ethical Decision Making of Nike 5. Doping in Sport 6. Conclusion 1. Introduction The ethics of businesses are under more scrutiny than ever before (Bones, 2014). Ethics can be considered as following a code of behaviour agreeable with the context of society and can also be defined as the application of moral and ethical considerations in a business environment (Hurn, 2008). Sport businesses have been targeted a lot more in recent years due to the conditions they place their workers in has become more apparent to the outside world. Nike are one of the world’s leading sports brands but have been faced with many allegations in recent years (Daily Mail, 2011) in regards to the conditions they put their workers in and their ethics and morals have been questioned. This report will critically evaluate the impact ethics has on the business operations of Nike and then analyse the reasons for why ethics impact the sport organisation. Finally, recommendations will be made to improve Nike’s business ethics. 2. Morals, Ethics and Nike Ethics can be described as theShow MoreRelatedEthical Issues Within The Workplace1375 Words   |  6 Pagesresponsible organizations like Nike consider the effect of their activities upon all stakeholders. What is asked that the business is ethically and socially accountable and when the stakeholder assembly converts disgruntled, the character of the business gets smudged as the argument of sweatshops smeared the character of Nike. The circumstance that is being discussed is the concern of Nike doing the right thing; to be ethically answerable. Ethics can be demarcated as the code of moralRead MoreEthics in Business: Overview of Nike Essay599 Words   |  3 PagesEthics is a major part in business, and every company that sells a product looking for profit is a business. In the American economy companies with the best ethics has the best profits. However companies occasionally fail to remain ethical in their activities, because they are too concerned with profits. Nike In c. is a worldwide company that is very famous for their designs and apparel wear, also it is a multination corporation that is engaged in the design and marketing. However Nike has pros andRead MoreSocial responsibility and Ethics in International Business Essay1392 Words   |  6 Pagesexploiting emerging opportunities and tackling their accompanying challenges relies heavily on how deeply they understand the dynamics of their operating environment† (as cited by Abebe, Elmuti, Minnis, 2005, p. 1024). Social responsibility and ethics Global expansion has developed a strategic imperative for nearly all large organizations and their managers. They have a great deal on their hands in developing, monitoring and changing their strategies. Becoming international is an important factorRead MoreCorporate Governance of Nike1748 Words   |  7 Pagesits capital is a corporation. There are also non-profit corporations organized for religious, educational, charitable or public service purposes. One of the corporations are the â€Å"Nike, Inc† which in other words can be said a company. And what here will be discussed the process how a corporate body that is Nike governs, ethic of it and the corporate responsibility of it upon the business world and balance of interest of the stakeholders such as Government, Employees, Customers, Suppliers, Creditors,Read MoreEssay Nike- Ethical Issues1454 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis: Nike Introduction Nike was established in 1972 by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight. These two men were visionaries. The goal for Nike was to carry on Bowerman’s legacy of innovative thinking by helping every athlete reach their goal or by creating lucrative business opportunities that would set the company apart from any competition. This included providing quality work environments for all who were employed by Nike. Read MoreEthical Companies with Unethical Practices Essay1514 Words   |  7 Pagesof this assignment I will use the Nike Company to highlight its unethical practices. Despite the popularity of Nike in the American market, it has been accused of exploiting employees abroad. The corporate social responsibility stipulates that a company should maximize its profit and minimizes its cost in operations and manufacturing, also at the same time benefit the community it operates in. This paper will further elaborate on the global strategy employed by Nike Company as it outsources its goodsRead MoreInternational Trade And Outsourcing Of Products968 Words   |  4 PagesIn the 1990’s the effects of international trade and outsourcing of products became a reality to many. The national news, newspapers, and other media sources were beginning to show Americans and many others around the world the truth behind overseas manufacturing. A majority of people began to criticize companies fo r their use of sweatshops overseas. The critics began to bring up the subjects of child labor, worker’s rights, and low-wage labor. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary the wordRead MoreThe Ethical Dilemmas Of Nike1327 Words   |  6 Pages This paper will discuss the company Nike. Nike has had many ethical issues, which will be addressed. The ethical dilemmas that Nike faced will be evaluated under two ethical frameworks. The whistleblower part that was played in exposing Nike will be analyzed. This paper will evaluate whether Nike used marketing or public relations successfully when trying to repair the damage caused by the reported lapse in ethics. The company Nike operates in over 50 different companies. ThisRead MoreEssay on How to Evaluate Companies?1061 Words   |  5 Pagesthe factors that must be taken into consideration when evaluating a firm are the following : business ethics, corporate social responsibility, reputation on leadership, governance and the company’s culture (Ethisphere, 2013). These factors in fact are the indicators used by the movement Ethisphere which identifies The World’s Most Ethical (WME) Companies. To define each criterion, business ethics primarily deals on the company’s best practices in terms of adopting an effective program and complianceRead MoreNike Case Analysis: Maintaining and Working on Brand Image1029 Words   |  4 PagesNike Case Analysis The case concerning the Nike brand is a classic case of maintaining and working on brand image. Every aspect of a brand is important in the basis of building a strong clientele and becoming a trusted retailer. Nike endured challenges along the way in their quest to become umber one. They encountered criticism due to the unsafe working conditions, which took the life of one of their workers in a foreign land. Although they were not direct workers of the Nikes headquarters, they

K3 Bahan Kimia Free Essays

Diss. ETHNo. 17186 Decision-making Framework for Chemical Process Design Including Different Stages of Environmental, Health and Safety (EHS) Assessment A dissertation submitted to ETH Zurich for the Doctor of Sciences degree (Dr. We will write a custom essay sample on K3 Bahan Kimia or any similar topic only for you Order Now of ETH sc. Zurich) presented by HlROKAZU SUGIYAMA Master of Engineering, The University of Tokyo born 30. 09. 1978 citizen of Japan accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Konrad Hungerbuhler, examiner Prof. Dr. Masahiko Prof. Dr. Alexander Hirao, co-examiner Wokaun, co-examiner 2007 Acknowledgement This thesis is the result of almost four years of research at the Safety and Environmental Technology group at ETH Zurich. During this time, many wonderful people provided me with scientific and personal support. appreciation to I would like to express my sincerest Konrad Hungerbuhler for giving me the opportunity to conduct this thesis work at his group. He guided my research with a well- balanced amount of critical and creative, broad and in-depth to comments. My deepest gratitude also belongs my work with Ulrich Fischer who was most dedicated in supervising was so precious ideas, great atmosphere enthusiasm and steadfast our leadership, and besides important for the great in process group. My special thanks go to Masahiko Hirao who provided the other essential pillar from Japan I was under the international and multicultural collaboration framework. The opportunity given I am to conduct parts of this project to at his group is very much appreciated. a also particularly grateful as Alexander Wokaun for his kind acceptance to be on second reviewer of the thesis well as creative comments this work. The financial support from Nagai Foundation Tokyo greatly is gratefully acknowledged. this work of CIBA Numerous people from industry contributed to by giving Specialty me insights from industrial practice. I would like to thank Gerhard Giger Chemicals for the Go Inoue big picture of industrial process development, Koichi Nagai, Kunihiko Shigematsu, and Hisanori Watanabe of Sumitomo Chemicals, Hermann Siegelt and Dirk Sarcinelli of Degussa for specific experiences on MMA production processes, and Karl Straessle of Zurich am Financial Services for know-how of industrial hazard assessment. I Iwao Matsumoto of JEEL for his IDEF also very grateful to expertise, and Yoshio Kumagae of PreFEED for his valuable comments on process design heuristics. My research further profited greatly from Volker Hoffmann at ETH Zurich for any academic researchers. Special thanks go to Tetsuo providing at his economy-oriented perspectives, Institute of Fuchino, Atsushi Aoyama and Yuji Naka Tokyo Technology for encouraging the direction of integrated process design, of and all members of Hirao for Laboratory especially working-time Yasunori Kikuchi at the University Tokyo sharing joyful and creative whenever I returned there. During my work I had a constant support from ETH Chemistry Library I would like to express my to access to various kinds of literatures, and representatively appreciation Engelbert Zass for his enthusiastic help. working I I had a most wonderful time in the creative and am hearty atmosphere of the Safety and Environmental Technology Group. most thankful to Elena Antonijuan, Isaac Kweku Adu, Andrea Bumann and Thomas Albrecht for their excellent performance in master theses and/or post-master database projects. My special a thanks go to Shailesh Shah who set up the EHS ready as perfect information-basis of this work. Many thanks I want to give to Ramon, Laurent, Fabio W, Fabio V, Georg, Valerie, Annette, Maximilian and Stefano who made my starting phase at ETH great and easy, and likewise to Matthias, Heike, Judith, David, Harald and Roland who shared the office G136 but also the ups and downs of research with me. I am particularly powerful thankful to Prisca for her IT friendly help in all administrative issues and to Erol for his and troubleshooting. My great appreciation belongs experiences and discussions as Andrej M, Levente Andrej S who shared many members of the process group, also to Christian, Martin, Stefanie and Matthew who helped I would like to me through their environmental expertise. and dearly thank all members of our group for all the magnificent days nights including SOLA, bike-tours, ski-weekends, and Toggele. ove, support My deepest appreciation and gratitude is reserved for and their my parents, for all their unwavering faith in me. Zurich, May 2007 Hirokazu Sugiyama Abstract In recent years, chemical a core companies have adopted the concept of sustainable development as business value. The basis of various decision-making in their entire business has been extended to cover aspect s, especially non-monetary issues, the in addition to economic performance. sustainability This thesis From the viewpoint of chemical engineering, big challenge is to integrate criteria early a in process design for as design objectives. rocess presents framework of chemical design, which incorporates multi objective consideration economic, and environmental, health and safety (EHS) different aspects in decision-making over design stages. With a focus on the early design according phase, to four stages, Process Chemistry as a I/II and Conceptual Design I/II, modeling are defined the available information basis for process and assessment. For each defined to economy, stage, appropriate modeling methods and evaluation indicators with respect lifethe cycle environmental impacts, EHS hazard and technical aspects are selected. Based at on evaluation esults, multi objective decision-making is performed systematically the each stage. A case study on methyl methacrylate (MMA) production stu dy, which processes is applied throughout routes this thesis. This case uniquely offers 17 potential synthesis and various types of chemicals in the reaction network, is applied for demonstrating the framework. Starting with 17 an possible synthesis routes, optimized inferior routes are eliminated step-by-step and at is the last stage flowsheet of the route with the best multi objective case performance produced. observing Another part of the the evaluation study alidates decisions made within the framework over by profile of six routes when different stages. Most routes are correctly selected at earlier routes. cause design stages are compared are to the detailed assessment results of all six Several factors identified that to available in detail only at later stages, and which significant updates the results. Among these are the magnitude of energy consumption, EHS investment cost, the amount of loss of valuable of materials, and the monetary and a implications newly considered su bstances. For these parameters there is measures need to have better estimates in the form of proxy lready at earlier stages. Two what-if analyses are presented to examine how the assessment results are change when the different process options or evaluation settings considered. One analysis investigates l impact of specifying process options at the detailed conceptual design stage, i. e. the rigorous flowsheeting stage, economy and and the effect of choosing different setups in evaluation for the criteria of The MMA case life-cycle environmental impacts. options study quantitatively reveals that, among different types of process and evaluation settings, specifying alternatives in reaction chemistry, e. . synthesis path, has the most significant impact. This result confirms the importance layouts of reliable proxy indicators for for different forecasting unknown aspects, e. g. detailed process synthesis paths, in early design stages. the As the second part of the assessment what-if analysis, Several and impact of method selection can on the EHS results is presented. simple methods that The be applied in the early phases are compared qualitatively on quantitatively. assessment results change significantly depending The overall the hazard evaluation method in the applied in each of the EHS aspects. scope, iscrepancy mathematical result stems from the differences in the manner considered mass parameters, formulation, and especially own that process no information is treated. However, each method has its merit of one background and there is unique or method a over the other in any of the EHS aspects. The appropriate simplicity can degree only of detail of method considering early design phases where it be applied is the characteristic that separates the methods. Finally, the developed framework is serves as represented by using a a standardized activity modeling use technique, IDEFO, enables the which of blueprint f the business model. The same of IDEFO The descri ption complex activities in detail and at the time transparently. activity model is defined for the four I to design stages as of the framework, i. e. from Process Chemistry Conceptual Design II, the activities to which appropriate case instructions and are resources are provided by as a project manager. Findings in the from the studies included in this activity model, know-how to be exploited design. traditional economic criteria with In summary, this dissertation demonstrates how to integrate non-conventional environment, health and safety criteria in ecision-making over different the stages of process design. This systematization will support chemical industry to undergo paradigm shift towards sustainability in developing processes. 11 Zusammenfassung Wahrend der letzten als Jahre hat die chemische Die Industrie Basis fur das die Konzept der nachhaltigen Entwicklung Kerngeschaft eingefuhrt. um Entscheidungsfindung besonders im gesamten Geschaftsbetrieb wurde finanzielle verschied ene zu Aspekte erweitert, nicht ¬ Gesichtspunkte des wurden zusatzlich den okonomischen Kriterien erfasst. Aus der die grosse von Perspektive Chemieingenieurwesens liegt in Herausforderung ahrend in der die Prozessenticklung Entwicklungsziele. Diese Dissertation welches die der fruhen Integration Nachhaltigkeitskriterien prasentiert ein Rahmenkonzept Zielgrossen fur die aus Entwicklung chemische Prozesse, aus Berucksichtigung mehrere Wirtschaft, sowie den Bereichen Umwelt, Gesundheit und Sicherheit (UGS) wahrend verschiedener Entwicklungsstufen fur eine Entscheidungsfindung beinhaltet. Mit einem Schwerpunkt auf der fruhen I/II Planungsphase den werden die vier Stufen Process Chemistry eine Stufe I/II und Conceptual Design entsprechend und verfugbaren definiert. Informationen als Basis fur die Prozessmodellierung Bewertung und UGS Fur jede definierte werden entsprechende Modellierungsmethoden okologischen Auf der Bewertungsindikatoren Gefahren und bezuglich Wirtschaftlichkeit, Belastungen, Grundlage in technischen wird Aspekten die ausgewahlt. dieser Stufe Abschatzungsergebnisse multi-kriterielle Entscheidungsfindung jeder systematisch durchgefuhrt. Die Produktion Dissertation von Methylmethacrylat (MMA) Diese wird als Fallstudie wahrend der ganzen 17 verwendet. Fallstudie, welche um potentielle Synthesewege zu und verschiedene Chemikalien aufweist, wird benutzt, werden das Rahmenkonzept demonstrieren. o Ausgehend von 17 Synthesewegen minderwertige Wege systematisch eliminiert, fur den dass in der letzten Stufe ein multi-kriteriellen optimiertes Flussdiagramm Syntheseweg mit der besten Leistung erhalten wird. Ein anderer Teil der Fallstudie validiert wahrend des Entwicklungswerdeganges Evaluationsprofile Synthesewege detaillierten Detail nur von gemachte Entscheidungen dur ch Beobachtung der sechs Synthesewegen uber verschiedene Stufen. Die meisten der 6 wurden in fruheren Stufen korrekt ausgewahlt, wie der Vergleich mit den im Abschatzungsergebnissen zeigt. verfugbar Mehrere Faktoren wurden identifiziert, die er in spateren Stufen sind und die grosse Veranderungen Ergebnisse verursachen. Solche Faktoren sind das Ausmass des Energieverbrauchs, Investitionskosten, in der Verlust von Wertstoffen, sowie finanzielle Auswirkungen und UGS-Einfluss von neu berucksichtigen eine bessere Substanzen. Diese Parameter sollten deshalb schon in fruheren Stufen fur als Einschatzung Proxyindikatoren verfugbar prasentiert um sein. Zwei wenn what-if Analysen unterschiedliche werden abzuschatzen wie sich die Ergebnisse andern Prozessoptionen oder Bewertungskriterien berucksichtigt werden. Eine d. h. in sowie der beiden der die Analysen rforscht in der detaillierten die konzeptionellen Entwicklungsstufe, von rigorosen Flowsheeting Stufe, Folgen der Wahl von Auswirkungen b estimmten Prozessoptionen verschiedenen Bewertungskriterien bezuglich quantitativ Wirtschaftlichkeit und Umweltbelastung. Typen von Die MMA Fallstudie lasst und den erkennen dass unter verschiedenen Prozessoptionen Synthesechemie fur verlassliche Bewertungskriterien grossen Einfluss in die Spezifizierung Dieses der Alternativen bestarkt die bezuglich Wichtigkeit Aspekte hat. Ergebniss um Indikatoren z. B. fruhen Entwicklungsstufen unbekannte verschiedene abzuschatzen, wie etaillierte Prozess-Auslegung fur Synthesewege. Als zweiter Teil der what-if Analyse prasentiert. wird die Einwirkung einfache der Methoden-Wahl auf die UGS Abschatzungsergebnisse Planungsphase Mehrere Methoden, die in der fruhen benutzt werden andern konnen, werden qualitativ und quantitativ verglichen. Die sich bedeutsam Abschatzungsergebnisse abhangig Die von der verwendeten UGS Bewertungs-Methode bezuglich stammt von aller UGS Aspekte. allgemeine Abweichung von im Resultat Unterschieden des und besonders beruck sichtigten Bereiches, von Parametern, mathematischen Formulierungen der Art, wie Informationen ezuglich es Masse behandelt werden. Jede Methode hat Vorteil einer Methode an jedoch ihren eigenen Hintergund und gibt keinen eindeutigen gegenuber den anderen. Die entsprechende Einfachheit oder der Grad Genauigkeit einer Methode in Bezug auf die fruhe „Planungsphase†, ist die einzige charakteristische Grosse mit welcher die Methoden unterschieden werden konnen. Zum Schluss wird das entwickelte Rahmenkonzept mittels einer standartisierten Aktivitats Modellierungs Technik, IDEFO, prasentiert, Die die als ein Entwurf des Busienss Modells dient. die detaillierte Das Nutzung von IDEFO ermoglicht und How to cite K3 Bahan Kimia, Papers

Give Five Difference on Quality Assurance and Quality Control free essay sample

Quality Assurance (Qa) Qa Is Process that is use to Create  amp; enforce standard amp; guideline to improve the Quality of  Soiftware Process amp; Prevent Bug from the Application Quality assuranceis a process in which all the roles are  guided and moniteered to accomplish their tasks right from  the starting of the process till the end Quality Assurance:- customer satisfication by providing value for their money by always supplying quality product as per customer specification and delivery requirement. Quality Control: QC is evaluating the product,identifying the defects and suggesting improvements for the same. It is oriented towards Detection eg:Testing. Quality Control is a system of routine technical activites,   to measure and control the quality of the inventory as it   is being developed. Quality Control includes general methods such as accuracy  checks on data acquisition and calculation and the use of  approved standardised procedure for emission calculations,   measurements, estimating uncertainites, archiving  informations and reporting. Quality Control (QC)Qc is a process that is use to Find Bug  From The Product , as early as possible amp; make sure they  get Fixed   Quality control is a process in which sudden checkings are  conducted on the roles   Quality Control :- QC is evaluating the product,identifying the defects and suggesting improvements for the same. It is oriented towards Detection eg:Testing. What are 8 principles of total quality management and key benefits the eight principles of TQM: 1. quality can and must be manage 2. everyone has a customer to delight 3. processes, not the people, are the problem 4. very employee is responsible for quality 5. problems must be prevented, not just fixed 6. quality must be measured so it can be controlled 7. quality improvements must be continuos 8. quality goals must be base on customer requirements. The concept of TQM (Total Quality Management) Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the 1950s and has steadily become more po pular since the early 1980s. Total Quality is a description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives to provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. The culture requires quality in all aspects of the companys operations, with processes being done right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations. Total Quality Management, TQM, is a method by which management and employees can become involved in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services. It is a combination of quality and management tools aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to wasteful practices. Some of the companies who have implemented TQM include Ford Motor Company, Phillips Semiconductor, SGL Carbon, Motorola and Toyota Motor Company. TQM Defined TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing, finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service, etc. ) to focus on meeting customer needs and organizational objectives. TQM views an organization as a collection of processes. It maintains that organizations must strive to continuously improve these processes by incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers. The simple objective of TQM is Do the right things, right the first time, every time. TQM is infinitely variable and adaptable. Although originally applied to manufacturing operations, and for a number of years only used in that area, TQM is now becoming recognized as a generic management tool, just as applicable in service and public sector organizations. There are a number of evolutionary strands, with different sectors creating their own versions from the common ancestor. TQM is the foundation for activities, hich include: * Commitment by senior management and all employees * Meeting customer requirements * Reducing development cycle times * Just In Time/Demand Flow Manufacturing * Improvement teams Reducing product and service costs * Systems to facilitate improvement * Line Management ownership * Employee involvement and empowerment * Recognition and celebration * Challenging quantified goals and benchmarking * Focus on processes / improvement plans * Specific incorporation in strategic planning This shows that TQM must be practiced in all activities, by all personnel, in Manufacturing, Marketing, Engine ering, Ramp;D, Sales, Purchasing, HR, etc. The core of TQM is the customer-supplier interfaces, both externally and internally, and at each interface lie a number of processes. This core must be surrounded by commitment to quality, communication of the quality message, and recognition of the need to change the culture of the organization to create total quality. These are the foundations of TQM, and they are supported by the key management functions of people, processes and systems in the organization. Difference between Product Quality and Process Quality 1. Product quality means we concentrate always final quality but in case of process quality we set the process parameterProduct quality means we concentrate quality of product that is fit for intended use and as per customer requirement. In the case of process quality we control our rejection rate such that in-house rejection is at minimum level. | | 2. Product quality means we concentrate always final quality but in case of process quality we set the process parameter 3. Product quality is the quality of the final product made. While Process quality means the quality of every process involved in the manufacturing of the final product. 4. Product quality  is focusing on meeting tolerances in the end result of the manufacturing activities. The end result is measured on a standard of good enough. Process quality focuses on each activity and forces the activities to achieve  maximum tolerances  irrespective of the end result. Something like a paint can manufacturer, the can and the lid need to match. A product quality focus on whether the paint can and lid fit tight enough but not too tight. This focus would require cans to be inspected and a specific ratio of defective would be expected. Process quality, the can making activities would be evaluated on its ability to to make the can opening exactly 6. 000 inches. The lid making would be evaluated on its ability to make  lids  6. 10 inches. No cans would be defective if the distribution of output sizes is narrow enough. The goal of process quality is to force narrow variance in product output to be able to expect close tolerances. This focus on process quality typically generates higher product quality as a secondary outcome. 5. When we talk about software quality assurance, we often discuss process measurements, proces s improvements, productivity increase, quality improvement etc. And when we talk about quality improvement, mostly people think about product quality improvement. Most of the time people forget about process quality improvement. In fact, people find it difficult to differentiate between product quality and process quality. Let us find out the difference! During software development we have work products like requirement specifications, software design, software code, user documentation, etc. Quality of any of these work products can be done by measuring its attributes and finding of they are good enough. For instance, a requirement specification may be ambiguous or even wrong. In that case, quality of that requirement specification is bad. So during quality assurance audit (peer review, inspection etc. ), this defect can be caught so that it can be rectified. During software development project, a lot of processes are followed. The top processes are the project processes like project initiation, project planning, project monitoring, and project closure. Then we have development processes like  requirement development, software design, software coding, software testing and software release. All of these processes are not executed perfectly on any project. Improvement in these processes can be achieved if we have audits of these processes. For instance, these audits are done by using standards like CMM (Capability Maturity Model). These standards dictate as to how any project or development process needs to be executed on any project. If any process step is deviating too much from these standards then that process step needs to be improved. The most important job of any software quality assurance department is to audit and ensure that all processes on projects being executed in that organization adhere to these standards and so quality of these processes (project amp; development) is good enough. Effect of ISO on Society Society ISO standards help governments, civil society and the business world translate societal aspirations, such as for social responsibility, health, and safe food and water, into concrete realizations. In so doing, they support the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals. Social responsibility 1 November 2010 saw the publication of ISO 26000 which gives organizations guidance on social responsibility, with the objective of sustainability. The standard was eagerly awaited, as shown by the fact that a mere four months after its publication, a Google search resulted in nearly five million references to the standard. This indicates there is a global expectation for organizations in both public and private sectors to be responsible for their actions, to be transparent, and behave in an ethical manner. ISO 26000, developed with the engagement of experts from 99 countries, the majority from developing economies, and more than 40 international  organizations, will help move from good intentions about social responsibility to effective action. Health ISO offers more than 1 400 standards for facilitating and improving health-care. These are developed within 19 ISO technical committees addressing specific aspects of healthcare that bring together health practitioners and experts from government, industry and other stakeholder categories. Some of the topics addressed include health informatics, laboratory equipment and testing, medical devices and their evaluation, dentistry, sterilization of healthcare products, implants for surgery, biological evaluation, mechanical contraceptives, prosthetics and orthotics, quality management and protecting patient data. They provide benefits for researchers, manufacturers, regulators, health-care professionals, and, most important of all, for patients. The World Health Organization is a major stakeholder in this work, holding liaison status with 61 of ISO’s health-related technical committees (TCs) or subcommittees (SCs). Food There are some 1 000 ISO food-related standards benefitting producers and manufacturers,  regulators and testing laboratories, packaging and transport companies, merchants and retailers, and the end consumer. In recent years, there has been strong emphasis on standards to ensure safe food supply chains. At the end of 2010, five years after the publication of ISO 22000, the standard was being implemented by users in 138 countries. At least 18 630 certificates of conformity attesting that food safety management systems were being implemented according to the requirements of the standard, had been issued by the end of 2010, an increase of 34 % over the previous year. The level of inter-governmental interest in ISO’s food standards is shown by the fact that the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organizations has liaison status with 41 ISO TCs or SCs. Water The goals of safe water and improved sanitation are ingrained in the UN Millennium Development Goals. ISO is contributing through the development of standards for both drinking water and wastewater services and for water quality. Related areas addressed by ISO include irrigation systems and plastic piping through which water flows. In all, ISO has developed more than 550 water-related standards. A major partner in standards for water quality is the United Nations Environment Programme. The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a  linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed fully before the next phase can begin. At the end of each phase, a review takes place to determine if the project is on the right path and whether or not to continue or discard the project. In waterfall model phases do not overlap. Diagram of Waterfall-model: Advantages of waterfall model: * Simple and easy to understand and use. * Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has specific deliverables and a review process. Phases are processed and completed one at a time. * Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood. Disadvantages of waterfall model: * Once an application is in the  testing  stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-thought out in the concept stage. * No working software is produced until late during the life cycle. * High amounts of risk and uncertainty. * Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects. * Poor model for long and ongoing projects. Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing. When to use the waterfall model: * Requirements are very well known, clear and fixed. * Product definition is stable. * Technology is understood. * There are no ambiguous requirements * Ample resources with required expertise are available freely * The project is short. The basic idea here is that instead of freezing the requirements before a design or coding can proceed, a throwaway prototype is built to understand the requirements. This prototype is developed based on the currently known requirements. By using this prototype, the client can get an â€Å"actual feel† of the system, since the interactions with prototype can enable the client to better understand the requirements of the desired system. Prototyping is an attractive idea for complicated and large systems for which there is no manual process or existing system to help determining the requirements. The prototype are usually not complete systems and many of the details are not built in the prototype. The goal is to provide a system with overall functionality. Diagram of Prototype model: Advantages of Prototype model: Users are actively involved in the development * Since in this methodology a working model of the system is provided, the users get a better understanding of the system being developed. * Errors can be detected much earlier. * Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions. * Missing functionality can be identified easily * Confusing or difficult functions can be identified Requirements validation, Quick implementation of, incomplete, but functional, application. Disadvantages of Prototype model: * Leads to implementing and then repairing way of building systems. Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the system may expand beyond original plans. * Incomplete application may cause application not to be used as the full system was designed Incomplete or inadequate problem analysis. When to use Prototype model: * Prototype model should be used when the desired system needs to have a lot of interaction with the end users. * Typically, online systems, web interfaces have a very high amount of interaction with end users, are best suited for Prototype model. It might take a while for a system to be built that allows ease of use and needs minimal training for the end user. * Prototyping ensures that the end users constantly work with the system and provide a feedback which is incorporated in the prototype to result in a useable system. They are excellent for designing good human computer interface systems. In incremental model the whole requirement is divided into various builds. Multiple development cycles take place here, making the life cycle aâ€Å"multi-waterfall† cycle. Cycles are divided up into smaller, more easily managed modules. Each module passes through the requirements, design, mplementation and  testingphases. A working version of software is produced during the first module, so you have working software early on during the  software life cycle. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the complete system is achieved. For example: In the diagram above when we work  incrementally  we are adding piece by piece but expect that each piece is fully finished. Thus keep on adding the pieces until it’s complete. Diagram of Incremental model: Advantages of Incremental model: * Generates working software quickly and early during the software life cycle. More flexible – less costly to change scope and requirements. * Easier to test and debug during a smaller iteration. * Customer can respond to each built. * Lowers initial delivery cost. * Easier to manage risk because risky pieces are identified and handled during it’d iteration. Disadvantages of Incremental model: * Needs good planning and design. * Needs a clear and complete definition of the whole system before it can be broken down and built incrementally. * Total cost is higher than  waterfall. When to use the Incremental model: * Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood. Major requirements must be defined; however, some detail s can evolve with time. * There is a need to get a product to the market early. * A new technology is being used * Resources with needed skill set are not available * There are some high risk features and goals. Difference between spiral model and incremental model Incremental Development Incremental Development is a practice where the system functionalities are sliced into increments (small portions). In each increment, a vertical slice of functionality is delivered by going through all the activities of the software development process, from the requirements to the deployment. Incremental Development (adding) is often used together with Iterative Development (redo) in software development. This is referred to as Iterative and Incremental Development (IID). Spiral model The Spiral Model is another IID approach that has been formalized by Barry Boehm in the mid-1980s as an extension of the Waterfall to better support iterative development and puts a special emphasis on risk management (through iterative risk analysis). 4 Reasons to Use Fishbone Diagrams The fishbone diagram, or the cause and effect diagram, is a simple graphic display that shows all the possible causes of a problem in a business process. It is also called the Ishakawa diagram. Fishbone diagrams are useful due to how they portray information. There are 4 Main Reasons to use a Fishbone Diagram: 1. Display relationships   The fishbone diagram captures the associations and relationships among the potential causes and effects displayed in the diagram. These relationships can be easily understood. 2. Show all causes simultaneously   Any cause or causal chain featured on the fishbone diagram could be contributing to the problem. The fishbone diagram illustrates each and every possible cause in an easily comprehendible way; this makes it a great tool for presenting the problem to stakeholders. 3. Facilitate brainstorming   The fishbone diagram is a great way to stimulate and structure brainstorming about the causes of the problem because it captures all the causes. Seeing the fishbone diagram may stimulate your team to explore possible solutions to the problems. 4. Help maintain team focus   The fishbone framework can keep your team focused as you discuss what data needs to be gathered. It helps ensure that everyone is collecting information in the most efficient and useful way, and that nobody is wasting energy chasing nonexistent problems. Agile software development is a group of software development methods based on iterative and incremental development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing, cross-functional teams. It promotes adaptive planning, evolutionary development and delivery, a time-boxed iterative approach, and encourages rapid and flexible response to change. It is a conceptual framework that promotes foreseen interactions throughout the development cycle. Rapid application development (RAD) is a software development methodology that uses minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping. The planning of software developed using RAD is interleaved with writing the software itself. The lack of extensive pre-planning generally allows software to be written much faster, and makes it easier to change requirements. Code and fix Code and fix development is not so much a deliberate strategy as an artifact of naivete and schedule pressure on software developers. [5] Without much of a design in the way, programmers immediately begin producing code. At some point, testing begins (often late in the development cycle), and the inevitable bugs must then be fixed before the product can be shipped. See also: Continuous integration and Cowboy coding What Are the Benefits of Pareto Analysis? A Pareto analysis is an observation of causes of problems that occur in either an organization or daily life, which is then displayed in a histogram. A histogram is a chart that prioritizes the causes of problems from the greatest to the least severe. The Pareto analysis is based on the Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, which states that 20 percent of effort yields 80 percent of results. For example, if an individual sells items on eBay, he should focus on 20 percent of the items that yield 80 percent of sales. According to Mindtools. com, a Pareto analysis enables individuals to make effective changes. Organizational Efficiency * A Pareto analysis requires that individuals list changes that are needed or organizational problems. Once the changes or problems are listed, they are ranked in order from the biggest to the least severe. The problems ranked highest in severity should become the main focus for problem resolution or improvement. Focusing on problems, causes and problem resolution contributes to organizational efficiency. Companies operate efficiently when employees identify the root causes of problems and spend time resolving the biggest problems to yield the greatest organizational benefit. Enhanced Problem-Solving Skills * You can improve your problem-solving skills when you conduct a Pareto analysis, because it enables you to organize work-related problems into cohesive facts. Once youve clearly outlined these facts, you can begin the planning necessary to solve the problems. Members of a group can conduct a Pareto analysis together. Arriving at a group consensus about the issues that require change fosters organizational learning and increases group cohesiveness. * Improved Decision Making * Individuals who conduct a Pareto analysis can measure and compare the impact of changes that take place in an organization. With a focus on resolving problems, the procedures and processes required to make the changes should be documented during a Pareto analysis. This documentation will enable better preparation and improvements in decision making for future changes. BENEFITS OF CONTROL CHARTS 1. Help you recognize and understand variability and how to control it 2. Identify â€Å"special causes† of variation and changes in performance 3. Keep you from fixing a process that is varying randomly within control limits; that is, no â€Å"special causes† are present. If you want to improve it, you have to objectively identify and eliminate the root causes of the process variation 4. Assist in the diagnosis of process problems 5. Determine if process improvement effects are having the desired affects 1st party audit First Party The first party audit is an audit carried out by a company on itself to etermine whether its systems and procedures are consistently improving products and services, and as a means to evaluate conformity with the procedures and the standard. Each second and third party audit should consider the first party audits carried out by the company in question. Ultimately, the only systems that should need to be examined are those of internal audits and reviews. In fact, the second or third parties themselves have to carry out internal or first party audits to ensure their own systems and procedures are meeting business objectives. SECOND PARTY (EXTERNAL) AUDIT Unlike the first party audit, a second party audit is an audit of another organization’s quality program not under the direct control or within the organizational structure of the auditing organization. Second party audits are usually performed by the customer upon its suppliers (or potential suppliers) to ascertain whether or not the supplier can meet existing or proposed contractual requirements. Obviously, the supplier’s quality system is a very important part of contractual requirements since it is directly (manufacturing, engineering, purchasing, quality control, etc. and indirectly (marketing, inside and outside sales, etc. ) responsible for the design, production, control and continued supportability of the product. Although second party audits are usually conducted by customers on their suppliers, it is sometimes beneficial for the customer to contract with an independent quality auditor. This action helps to promote an image of fairness and objectivity on the p art of the customer. THIRD PARTY AUDIT Compared to first and second party audits where auditors are not independent, the third party audit is objective. It is an assessment of an organization’s quality system conducted by an independent, outside auditor or team of auditors. When referring to a third party audit as it applies to an international quality standard such as ISO 9000, the term third party is synonymous with a quality system registrar whose primary responsibility is to assess an organization’s quality system for conformance to that standard and issue a certificate of conformance (upon completion of a successful assessment). Application of IT in supplying Point of sale  (POS) or  checkout  is the place where a retail transaction is completed. It is the point at which a customer makes a payment to a merchant in exchange for goods or services. At the point of sale the merchant would use any of a range of possible methods to calculate the amount owing, such as a manual system, weighing machines, scanners or an electronic cash register. The merchant will usually provide hardware and options for use by the customer to make payment, such as an EFTPOS terminal. The merchant will also normally issue a receipt for the transaction. Functions of IT in marketing Pricing Pricing plays an important role in determining market success and profitability. If you market products that have many competitors, you may face strong price competition. In that situation, you must aim to be the lowest-cost supplier so you can set low prices and still remain profitable. You can overcome low price competition by differentiating your product and offering customers benefits and value that competitors cannot match. Promotion Promotion makes customers and prospects aware of your products and your company. Using promotional techniques, such as advertising, direct marketing, telemarketing or public relations, you can communicate product benefits and build preference for your company’s products. Selling Marketing and selling are complementary functions. Marketing creates awareness and builds preference for a product, helping company sales representatives or retail sales staff sell more of a product. Marketing also supports sales by generating leads for the sales team to follow up. Market segmentation Market segmentation is a marketing strategy that involves dividing a broad target market into subsets of consumers who have common needs, and then designing and implementing strategies to target their needs and desires using media channels and other touch-points that best allow to reach them. Types of segmentation Clickstream behaviour A clickstream is the recording of the parts of the screen a computer user clicks on while web browsing or using another software application. As the user clicks anywhere in the webpage or application, the action is logged on a client or inside the web server, as well as possibly the web browser, router, proxy server or ad server. Clickstream analysis is useful for web activity analysis, software testing, market research, and for analyzing employee productivity. Target marketing A target market is a group of customers that the business has decided to aim its marketing efforts and ultimately its merchandise towards. A well-defined target market is the first element to a marketing strategy. The marketing mix variables of product, place (distribution), promotion and price are the four elements of a marketing mix strategy that determine the success of a product in the marketplace. Function of IT in supply chain Making sure the right products are in-store for shoppers as and when they want them is key to customer loyalty. It sounds simple enough, yet why do so many retailers still get it wrong. Demand planning Demand Planning is the art and science of planning customer demand to drive holistic execution of such demand by corporate supply chain and business management. Demand forecasting Demand forecasting is the activity of estimating the quantity of a product or service that consumers will purchase. Demand forecasting involves techniques including both informal methods, such as educated guesses, and quantitative methods, such as the use of historical sales data or current data from test markets. Demand forecasting may be used in making pricing decisions, in assessing future capacity requirements, or in making decisions on whether to enter a new market. Just in time inventory Just in time  (JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business  return on investment  by reducing in-process  inventory  and associated  carrying costs. Continuous Replenishment Continuous Replenishment is a process by which a supplier is notified daily of actual sales or warehouse shipments and commits to replenishing these sales (by size, color, and so on) without stock outs and without receiving replenishment orders. The result is a lowering of associated costs and an improvement in inventory turnover. Supply chain sustainability Supply chain sustainability is a business issue affecting an organization’s supply chain or logistics network in terms of environmental, risk, and waste costs. Sustainability in the supply chain is increasingly seen among high-level executives as essential to delivering long-term profitability and has replaced monetary cost, value, and speed as the dominant topic of discussion among purchasing and supply professionals. Software testing Difference between defect, error, bug, failure and fault: â€Å"A mistake in coding is called error ,error found by tester is called defect,   defect accepted by development team then it is called bug ,build does not meet the requirements then it Is failure. † Error:  A discrepancy between a computed, observed, or measured value or condition and the true, specified, or theoretically correct value or condition. This can be a misunderstanding of the internal state of the software, an oversight in terms of memory management, confusion about the proper way to calculate a value, etc. Failure:  The inability of a system or component to perform its required functions within specified performance requirements. See: bug, crash, exception, and fault. Bug: A fault in a program which causes the program to perform in an unintended or unanticipated manner. See: anomaly, defect, error, exception, and fault. Bug is terminology of Tester. Fault:  An incorrect step, process, or data definition in a computer program which causes the program to perform in an unintended or unanticipated manner. See: bug, defect, error, exception. Defect: Commonly refers to several troubles with the software products, with its external behaviour or with its internal features. Regression testing Regression testing is any type of software testing that seeks to uncover new software bugs, or regressions, in existing functional and non-functional areas of a system after changes, such as enhancements, patches or configuration changes, have been made to them. Verification and Validation example is also given just below to this table. Verification|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Validation| 1. Verification is a static practice of verifying documents, design, code and program. 1. Validation is a dynamic mechanism of validating and testing the actual product. | 2. It does not involve executing the code. | 2. It always involves executing the code. | 3. It is human based checking of documents and files. | 3. It is computer based execution of program. | 4. Verification uses methods like inspections, reviews, walkthroug hs, and Desk-checking etc. | 4. Validation uses methods like black box (functional)   testing, gray box testing, and white box (structural) testing etc. | 5. Verification  is to check whether the software conforms to specifications. | 5. Validation  is to check whether software meets the customer expectations and requirements. | 6. It can catch errors that validation cannot catch. It is low level exercise. | 6. It can catch errors that verification cannot catch. It is High Level Exercise. | 7. Target is requirements specification, application and software architecture, high level, complete design, and database design etc. | 7. Target is actual product-a unit, a module, a bent of integrated modules, and effective final product. | 8. Verification is done by QA team to ensure that the software is as per the specifications in the SRS document. 8. Validation is carried out with the involvement of testing team. | 9. It generally comes first-done before validation. | 9. It generally follows after verification. | Differences Between Black Box Testing and White Box Testing Criteria| Black Box Testing| White Box Testing| Definition| Black Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal structure/ design/ imple mentation of the item being tested is NOT known to the tester| White Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal structure/ design/ implementation of the item being tested is known to the tester. Levels Applicable To| Mainly applicable to higher levels of testing: Acceptance TestingSystem Testing| Mainly applicable to lower levels of testing: Unit TestingIntegration Testing| Responsibility| Generally, independent Software Testers| Generally, Software Developers| Programming Knowledge| Not Required| Required| Implementation Knowledge| Not Required| Required| Basis for Test Cases| Requirement Specifications| Detail Design| A programmer, computer programmer, developer, coder, or software engineer is a person who writes computer software. A quality assurance officer implements strategic plans, supervises quality assurance personnel and is responsible for budgets and allocating resources for a quality assurance division or branch. Levels of testing In  computer programming,  unit testing  is a method by which individual units of  source code, sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine if they are fit for use. Intuitively, one can view a unit as the smallest testable part of an application. Integration testing (sometimes called Integration and Testing, abbreviated Iamp;T) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. System testing of software or hardware is testing conducted on a complete, integrated system to evaluate the systems compliance with its specified requirements. System testing falls within the scope of black box testing, and as such, should require no knowledge of the inner design of the code or logic. In engineering and its various sub disciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests. In systems engineering it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery. Software developers often distinguish acceptance testing by the system provider from acceptance testing by the customer (the user or client) prior to accepting transfer of ownership. In the case of software, acceptance testing performed by the customer is known as user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, site (acceptance) testing, or field (acceptance) testing. A sample testing cycle Although variations exist between organizations, there is a typical cycle for testing. The sample below is common among organizations employing the Waterfall development model. Requirements analysis: Testing should begin in the requirements phase of the software development life cycle. During the design phase, testers work with developers in determining what aspects of a design are testable and with what parameters those tests work. Test planning: Test strategy, test plan, testbed creation. Since many activities will be carried out during testing, a plan is needed. Test development: Test procedures, test scenarios, test cases, test datasets, test scripts to use in testing software. Test execution: Testers execute the software based on the plans and test documents then report any errors found to the development team. Test reporting: Once testing is completed, testers generate metrics and make final reports on their test effort and whether or not the software tested is ready for release. Test result analysis: Or Defect Analysis, is done by the development team usually along with the client, in order to decide what defects should be assigned, fixed, rejected (i. e. found software working properly) or deferred to be dealt with later. Defect Retesting: Once a defect has been dealt with by the development team, it is retested by the testing team. AKA Resolution testing. Regression testing: It is common to have a small test program built of a subset of tests, for each integration of new, modified, or fixed software, in order to ensure that the latest delivery has not ruined anything, and that the software product as a whole is still working correctly. Test Closure: Once the test meets the exit criteria, the activities such as capturing the key outputs, lessons learned, results, logs, documents related to the project are archived and used as a reference for future projects. Types of Performance testing Stress testing (sometimes called torture testing) is a form of deliberately intense or thorough testing used to determine the stability of a given system or entity. Usability testing is a technique used in user-centered interaction design to evaluate a product by testing it on users. Volume testing refers to testing a software application with a certain amount of data. This amount can, in generic terms, be the database size or it could also be the size of an interface file that is the subject of volume testing. Maintenance testing is a test that is performed to either identify equipment problems, diagnose equipment problems or to confirm that repair measures have been effective. When it comes to quality management, IT organisations can take a leaf out of industry’s book. Thanks to the success of companies like Toyota and Motorola, methods such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Six Sigma are gaining rapid popularity. And with good reason. Quality is a good generator of money, and lots of it. Unlike industry, IT has no physical chain. This makes it more difficult at first to be able to take concrete steps towards the implementation of quality management. But the parallels are easily drawn. Regard a satisfied end user as the equivalent of a faultless end product, a carefully conceived system of applications as the equivalent of a streamlined production line and so forth. And similar to industry, things can go wrong in any aspect. The faultless implementation of processes leads to significant savings (and not forgetting satisfied end users). What should you focus on to set up quality management for IT within your own organisation and subsequently make money? The service excellence strategy Organise a strategy of service excellence for the internal IT services, where the optimisation of service to end users receives top priority. After all, poor quality leads to high repair costs. Especially in IT. Resolving incidents costs money (direct costs). And the indirect costs, such as loss of productivity are, though often unobserved, several times these direct costs. Focus on management and service processes The focus within IT is often on the projects and the functionalities of the systems. But to ensure service excellence, the performance of management and service processes are equally important. If these processes are substandard, it could result in a lack of clarity, unnecessary waiting times and – in the worst case scenario – to malfunctions. A reassessment of processes is vital to prevent these discomforts and reduce relevant costs. Measure the effect of failure and errors The effect of failure and errors at the workplace is rarely measured. Organisations often have no idea how much these mistakes are costing them and what the consequences are for the service to their clients. The costs of incidents and malfunctions are easy to calculate by using a few simple rules of thumb. When you do this regularly, it will become clear for everyone where savings can be realised (read: how much money can be made). This will suddenly put the investments made towards achieving higher quality in an entirely new perspective. Use simple, service-oriented KPIs The moment you have insight into what causes the direct and indirect failure and error costs, it’s a small step to define a number of simple and service-oriented KPIs. These KPIs can form the guideline for measuring and improving service quality. Examples of such KPIs are: * The average number of incidents per employee; * The percentage of incidents resolved during the first contact with the helpdesk (the so-called ‘first-time right’ principle); * The percentage of incidents caused by incorrectly implemented changes. Implement a measurement methodology Improvements within a quality system happen on the basis of facts. The collection of facts takes place through measurements within the operational processes, on the basis of preselected metrics (e. . the number of complaints). The key performance indicators (KPIs) show whether a specific objective has been achieved, for example a desired decline in the number of complaints, expressed in percentages. Don’t overestimate the power of ITIL ITIL (IT Infrastructure Library) is a collection of best practices for the structuring of operational processes. Many companies have implemented IT IL in an effort to make their service more professional. ITIL lets you lay a good foundation to make the IT service more professional. But beware: it is no quality methodology. It might be good for defining IT processes, but offers no scope for actual improvement. So you will need a separate quality methodology in addition to ITIL. Most organisations require a drastic improvement in the quality of their IT services. Perhaps the realisation that this won’t be costing any money, but will instead generate it, offers the incentive needed to set to work earnestly on the issue. The end result means two birds with one stone: a service-oriented IT company that saves costs, and an IT company that truly supports the end users in carrying out their activities optimally. The Importance of Quality Improvement in Your Business Venture A career in the business industry requires you to be tough and flexible. Business is a difficult venture. You have to make your way through and outperform competitors. Businesses nowadays have also gone global. You have to compete with other business entities from the world over. Because of the tough competition in the business scenes, getting the attention and the trust of customers has become increasingly difficult. This is where quality improvement comes in. Quality plays a vital role in any business. Consumers want the best and want to pay the lowest possible price for products that are of the greatest quality. Moreover, quality is also one of the main components of being able to stay in the game despite the competition around you. Constant quality improvement is important in keeping you afloat. This has to do with eliminating or reducing the losses and waste in the production processes of any business. Quality improvement most often involves the analysis of the performance of your business, products, and services and finding ways to further improve them. There are certain techniques that can help you in achieving quality improvement. Knowing these steps can lead you to improved quality in your business. Benchmarking or comparing your company to the best or the top of the field will also be beneficial. You have to identify what makes an organization or company ‘the best’ and why the consumers want to purchase these products or services. Compare the quality and cost of their products with yours. Also include the processes that use to produce them. This can help you in looking for your own business factors that you have to improve upon for success. Setting up your own internal quality checks is important. You have to ensure that in ach step of making your product, you are meeting the standards of the industry and also providing your customers with the best products. This needs to be done with the least amount of waste and as few resources as possible. You need to be rigid about following the quality checks that your company has put forth. This will save you from having to deal with returned items and pr oducts. It also helps in guaranteeing the satisfaction of your customers. You need to assess your own production and your products. You need to know if these have passed the international standards on quality for the respective industry you do business in. Moreover, measure how your product is doing against others in the market. These are important in order to know what aspects you have to improve. You cannot afford to be forgiving when assessing. You need to be honest and blunt when gauging your own company. This will help you in finding needs for improvement. After assessing, you have to take the steps in making the necessary changes that will lead you to improvement. You may need to change your quality policy or do more research about your products and provide better features. You may also need to conduct training for your employees in order to update them with new methods in your processes. Quality improvement is not just a one-time process. It needs to be continued despite the success that a company or organization is appreciating. Competitors will always try their best to outwit you. And so, you have to continue on improving your products and services in order to offer more to your clients. This will not only lead you to more sales but also to a better reputation in the industry. Keep in mind that it is often more work to stay on top than to get to the top!